Research

Flexibility and Balance in Self-Control
Our group is involved in the Research Training Group FlexBaR. The overarching theme of this group is to investigate the concepts of flexibility and balance as characteristics of adaptive self-regulation (Friese, Bürgler, Hofmann, & Hennecke, 2024; Friese, Bürgler, Reis, Kulkarni, Hofmann, & Hennecke, in press). Our lab investigates whether and when flexibility – understood as the context-dependent application of self-control strategies – is adaptive for goal pursuit. In a different line, we examine how people balance the various goals they pursue and whether a good balance between goals is associated with better goal attainment and well-being. One project that connects several lines of work asks what constitutes a self-control failure that presumably stands in the way of goal progress in the first place, and how people make sense of their apparent and actual failures.  

Trait Self-Control
Self-control is considered a trait that is fairly stable across time. Good self-control is associated with a host of positive outcomes including good mental and physical health, stable personal relationships, and wealth. Despite being a prominent research topic in several subfields of psychology, there is no clear consensus about how trait self-control can be conceptualized. One line of work sought to develop a conceptualization of trait self-control that considers overlap with and distinctiveness from related constructs and develop a corresponding measurement instrument (Wennerhold & Friese, 2023; Wennerhold, Reis, & Friese, unpublished).

Strength Model of Self-Control
A prominent idea suggested that the exertion of self-control impairs performance in subsequent attempts at self-control (ego depletion effect). After a prolific period in which this phenomenon has received abundant attention in research and the public media, the field has been confronted with severe doubts about the robustness and replicability of much of the reported research and the sustainability of the model (Gieseler, Loschelder, & Friese, 2019). A review from our lab about the state of the field concluded that there is no conclusive evidence for the phenomenon, but neither is there conclusive evidence that the phenomenon does not exist. Both better theoretical and empirical work is needed to gain a deeper understanding of ego depletion effects (Friese, Loschelder, Gieseler, Frankenbach, & Inzlicht, 2019). Other work examined the role of mental effort as indicated by psychophysiological measures in the emergence of ego depletion effects (Gieseler, Loschelder, Job, & Friese, 2021). 

If self-control is so helpful in living a healthy, happy, and successful life, an important question is how it can be improved. Some researchers examined if regular practice of self-control can lead to changes not only in the practiced domain, but more broadly in domains that require self-control. A  meta-analysis of this literature from our lab provided mixed support for this idea and concluded that the evidence is not strong enough to be optimistic about the possibility to train self-control for a few weeks in one domain and see lasting effects in a different domain (Friese, Frankenbach, Job, & Loschelder, 2017).

The Dynamics of Self-Control
Many self-control situations are characterized by conflicts between individuals’ long-term goals and their short-term impulses. Based on dual-process and dual-system models of human behavior, we examined the interplay of three components that jointly shape self-regulatory behavior: (1) reflective precursors of behavior such as explicit attitudes and personal standards, (2) impulsive precursors of behavior such as spontaneous affective reactions toward a temptation, and (3) boundary factors that shift the weight of reflective and impulsive processes on behavior such as the willingness and the ability of the individual to exert control over behavior. A series of studies supported the assumptions that reflective precursors correspond to observed self-regulatory behavior better under conditions of high ability to control and the reverse was true for impulsive precursors of behavior (for an overview, see Hofmann, Friese, & Strack, 2009).

Sexual Motivation: Conceptualization and Meta-Analysis of Gender Differences
Few areas of life are as universally relevant to (almost) all individuals past puberty as sexuality. People vary in their intrinsic motivation to seek sexual activity and satisfaction, typically referred to as sexual motivation or sex drive. Several recent projects have revolved around this concept. Previous research has varied in how it conceptualized sexual motivation. In one project, we offered a theory-driven conceptualization of the construct as a density distribution of state sexual motivation, where state sexual motivation is defined as momentary interest in sexual activity as manifested in sexual cognition, affect, and behavior (Frankenbach, Weber, Loschelder, Kilger, & Friese, 2022). Based on this conceptualization, we conducted a meta-analysis of gender differences in sexual motivation. Previous research has typically reported stronger sexual motivation in men compared to women (Baumeister et al., 2001), but some authors have argued that the respective reports may be of questionable validity due to biased responding by both genders (Conley et al., 2011). In our meta-analysis, we found a medium to large gender difference indicating stronger sexual motivation in men compared to women. When trying to control for biased responding by accounting for response bias on items that logically cannot show significant gender differences, the meta-analytic effect was medium in size.

Measuring Sexual Motivation
To elucidate the impact of sexual motivation on people's lives, researchers need a valid measure of the construct. Existing self-report measures of sexual motivation often lack a theoretical conceptualization, a comprehensive validation process, or both, compromising their validity and widespread use. Based on our theoretical conceptualization of sexual motivation (Frankenbach et al., 2022), we developed the Trait Sexual Motivation Scale (TSMS; Weber, Reis, & Friese, 2024). In four preregistered studies, we rigorously validated the TSMS in accordance with recommended practices for scale validation (Loevinger, 1957; Simms, 2008). Overall, the TSMS was found to be an economical, reliable, and valid measure of sexual motivation independent of gender and relationship status.

Sexual Norms and Sexual Self-presentation
Sexuality is one of the most sensitive and private areas of life. People who are asked sexual questions may therefore be reluctant to give completely honest answers and instead tend to present themselves in ways that are particularly valued by others. Previous research has often suggested that the social norms underlying self-presentation tendencies follow a sexual double standard: that high levels of sexual activity are socially rewarded for men, but socially punished for women (Marks & Fraley, 2005). As a result, men have been expected to exaggerate their sexual experiences while women have been expected to understate theirs (Alexander & Fisher, 2003). However, empirical support for the sexual double standard and gendered self-presentation tendencies is scarce. In one project, we examined how people believe others will evaluate different levels of sexual activity for men and women. Across two samples and seven sexual outcomes, high sexual activity was judged more favorably for men than for women (replicating previous research), and the opposite was true for low sexual activity (extending previous research). Importantly, moderate (not extremely low or high) sexual activity was rated most favorably in both genders, suggesting that male and female sexual norms are equally characterized by similarities and differences (Weber & Friese, 2024). In another project, we examined sexual self-reports in online studies that do not require direct human interaction and thus may work against self-presentation. Using four different approaches to prevent, test, and control for self-presentation effects, we found little evidence that online reports of sexual motivation are fundamentally flawed. In particular, our results do not support the hypothesis that self-presentation is a major driver of gender differences in sexual motivation (Weber, Kilger, & Friese, unpublished manuscript).

Sexual Motivation in Everyday Life
Although research on sexual motivation has become more and more popular, its characteristics and importance in the daily lives of young and healthy people are still poorly understood. To address this gap, we conducted an experience-sampling study to examine (a) characteristics ("How frequently do sexual events occur?"), (b) antecedents (e.g., self-control, partner presence), and (c) consequences (e.g., distraction, relationship quality) of sexual motivation in everyday life. Results suggest that sexual events are prevalent and frequent (e.g., several fantasies per day on average), that reported sexual motivation is higher when partners are present, and that higher levels of sexual motivation are associated with higher relationship quality (Weber, Frankenbach, Hofmann, & Friese, unpublished manuscript).

An emerging line of research is concerned with questions in the domain of sustainability and climate change.  In one project, we found that people are more likely to engage in downward comparisons when evaluating their environmental actions, compared to other common social comparison domains (Diel & Friese, 2024). This tendency can be partly explained by the morally charged nature of environmental behavior. Recent work analyzed how it is best possible to estimate the potential of behavior change interventions to mitigate climate change (Friese, Diel, & Thiel, unpublished). Our analysis suggests that current design and reporting practices of behavior change intervention studies should be improved and also gather information about the persistence and scalability of intervention effects. 

Our lab also participated in multi-site collaborative research projects in the domain of behavioral science and climate change (Doell et al., 2024; Vlasceanu et al., 2024; Cologna et al., 2025). 

Social Comparison and Motivation

In our research, we integrate social comparison theory with motivational principles from self-regulation frameworks to examine how people's assessments of discrepancies between themselves and comparison standards impact motivation and goal pursuit. Upward comparisons, which emphasize a negative discrepancy between the self and the standard, are linked to heightened self-improvement motivation ("pushing"). However, when the perceived gap becomes too large, people are more likely to disengage from their goal. Conversely, positive discrepancies associated with downward comparisons, where the self has surpassed the standard, generally lead to reduced effort ("coasting"). These findings are supported by recent studies (Diel, Grelle, & Hofmann, 2021; Diel, Broeker, Raab, & Hofmann, 2021). Additionally, we explore how social comparisons can be leveraged as an intervention tool to enhance goal pursuit in everyday life (Diel, Hofmann, Grelle, Boecker & Friese, in press).

Social Comparison and Environmental Behavior 

In our research, we explore the dynamics of social comparison in the context of environmental behavior. We find that people are more likely to engage in downward comparisons when evaluating their environmental actions, compared to other common social comparison domains (Diel & Friese, 2024). Our studies suggest that this tendency can be partly explained by the morally charged nature of environmental behavior. To protect their moral self-image, people often favor downward comparisons, as they help reinforce a positive sense of self (Fleischmann, Lammers, Diel, Hofmann, & Galinsky, 2021). We also investigate how this inclination towards downward comparison influences people's motivation to engage in pro-environmental behaviors in the future.

Social Comparison and Emotions

Social comparisons are rarely neutral events; they are often accompanied by strong emotional responses. Downward comparisons tend to boost well-being and self-esteem, while upward comparisons can undermine confidence and evoke feelings of inadequacy. We also study specific emotions that arise uniquely from social comparisons. For example, upward comparisons can elicit admiration, benign envy, or malicious envy, while downward comparisons may evoke pity, sympathy, or schadenfreude. In our work, we investigate how the intensity and occurrence of these emotions depend on factors such as the direction of the comparison (upward or downward) and the extremity of the comparison, which reflects how far an individual perceives themselves to deviate from the standard. Additionally, we examine the motivational and behavioral functions of these emotions, exploring how they can drive or inhibit action (Diel, Boecker, Lange, Hofmann & Crusius, in preparation).

Some of our projects are concerned with meta science -- research about research. These activities are spread across various fields. Some projects are concerned with open and transparent research practices. For example, in one project we employed a large-scale simulation study to examine the influence of p-hacking and publication bias on the distortion of meta-analytic effect size estimates (Friese & Frankenbach, 2020). A related book chapter covers the concept of p-hacking, the consequences of p-hacking for scientific progress, the prevalence and detection of p-hacking, and ways to prevent it (Reis & Friese, 2022). Finally, a collaborate project dealt with the question of how reproducible research and open science training can become the norm at research institution (Kohrs et al. (2023). 

In the field of self-regulation, two projects examined the theoretical basis (i.e., the strength model of self-control) and the empirical research on ego depletion effects (Friese, Loschelder, Gieseler, Frankenbach, & Inzlicht, 2019; Gieseler, Loschelder, & Friese, 2019). Finally, in another project, we investigated the efficacy of post-experimental debriefings to remedy the negative effects of ego threatening manipulations in research studies on participants' well-being (Miketta & Friese, 2019). Recent work analyzes how the potential of behavior change interventions to mitigate climate change can be estimated (Friese, Diel, & Thiel, unpublished).